https://saffron.torbath.ac.ir/ Saffron Agronomy and Technology en daily 1 Wed, 21 Jan 2026 00:00:00 +0330 Wed, 21 Jan 2026 00:00:00 +0330 https://saffron.torbath.ac.ir/article_243546.html Considering the impact of climatic parameters, particularly temperature and precipitation, on the growth, yield, and quality of saffron, this study aimed to investigate the flower and stigma yield along with some quantitative traits of saffron under the influence of climatic factors and agricultural management in ten counties of Khorasan Razavi Province (including Bajestan, Bakharz, Bardaskan, Gonabad, Quchan, Mashhad, Mahvalat, Taybad, Torbat-e Heydarieh, and Zaveh) through a questionnaire survey conducted over two years (2022 and 2023). The studied traits included time to flowering onset, flowering duration, flower yield, stigma yield, and stigma harvest index in saffron. Cluster analysis was performed to group cities. The results indicated that the simple effects of farm age, number of irrigations, summer irrigation, climate, year, and the interaction between climate and year were significant (p ≤ 0.05) for most flowering indices. The flowering duration ranged from 12.2 to 17.5 days in 2022 and from 8.2 to 12.1 days in 2023. The longest flowering duration in both years was recorded in Zaveh and Bakharz, while Bajestan had the shortest. The greatest and least reduction in flowering duration from the first to the second year were observed in Taybad and Zaveh, respectively. The flower yield ranged from 278.5 to 799.95 kg.ha-1 in 2022 and from 152.1 to 360.8 kg.ha-1 in 2023; in both years, Taybad and Bardaskan had the highest and lowest yields, respectively. The reduction in flower yield from the first to the second year ranged from 34% to 67%, with Zaveh and Bajestan showing the highest and lowest reductions, respectively. Correlation analysis between climatic parameters and saffron yield revealed a highly significant correlation between yield and the average August temperature, as well as between yield and the total February. As the average August temperature increased, yield decreased; conversely, increased in February precipitation improved yield. Since replenishment of photosynthetic material occurs in daughter corms during winter, rainfall during the growing season is crucial. All flowering indices were higher in counties with cooler climates compared to those with warmer climates. Furthermore, the decline in flower and stigma yield in the second year was less pronounced in warmer counties due to lower cold damage. Overall, it is recommended to adopt ecological intensification strategies, such as soil shading during hot summers, planting large corms at high density per unit area, and reducing the exploitation period, to mitigate the effects of climate change. https://saffron.torbath.ac.ir/article_244148.html The aim of this research was to investigate the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) under the influence of corm inoculation with beneficial microorganisms and vermicompost in a randomized complete block design with three replications during two agricultural years, 2019-2020 and 2020-2021, at the Research Farm of Urmia University, Iran. The involved factors included 1) control without using phosphorus chemical fertilizer and without corm inoculation, consumption of 100% of the recommended phosphorus chemical fertilizer based on soil test, and without inoculation, corm inoculation with Pseudomonas fluorescens, corm inoculation with Glomus etunicatum, vermicompost (10 t.ha-1 at planting time), corm inoculation with P. fluorescens + G. etunicatum, corm inoculation with P. fluorescens + vermicompost, corm inoculation with G. etunicatum + vermicompost, and corm inoculation with P. fluorescens + G. etunicatum + vermicompost. Based on the results of this study, the combined treatment of vermicompost with Pseudomonas and mycorrhiza had a positive, significant effect on the quantitative and qualitative yields of saffron. In most of the studied traits, the highest values ​​were observed in the combined biofertilizer treatments, although this difference was not significant for some traits with the chemical phosphorus fertilizer. The highest fresh and dry weight of corms was observed in the combined treatment of vermicompost with Pseudomonas (6.3 and 1.8 kg.m-2) and mycorrhiza treatment (5.89 and 1.71 kg.m-2), and the highest yield of stigma fresh and dry weight was observed in the combined treatment of vermicompost with Pseudomonas (0.018 and 0.007 g.m-2) and also mycorrhiza treatment (0.017 and 0.005 g.m-2). The results showed that the fresh and dry yields of saffron style in biofertilizer treatments, and in the combination of biofertilizer with vermicompost, were significantly higher than those in the phosphorus chemical fertilizer and control treatments. The highest crocin content was obtained in the combined treatment of vermicompost with mycorrhiza (24.5%), mycorrhiza treatment (23.8%), and the combined treatment of vermicompost with Pseudomonas and mycorrhiza (23.7%), which showed an increase of 10.61, 7.98, and 7.59 percent compared to the control, respectively. The highest safranal concentration was observed in the vermicompost treatment (41%), although there was no significant difference compared with the combined treatment of vermicompost with mycorrhiza (37%) and phosphorus chemical fertilizer (39%). In addition, the use of biofertilizers and their combination increased the amount of picrocrocin in saffron stigma, so that there was no significant difference with phosphorus chemical fertilizer treatment. In general, the results indicate that feeding saffron vermicompost and inoculating it with microorganisms had a significant effect on saffron growth and yield. The use of these fertilizers is an acceptable approach to reduce the overuse of chemical fertilizers while maintaining yield. https://saffron.torbath.ac.ir/article_242447.html One of the methods to improve production and control flowering in plants is the use of growth regulators such as gibberellic acid. In order to investigate the effect corm priming time of saffron with gibberellic acid (GA3), a factorial experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design with three replications at the Agricultural Research Station,University of Tehran in 2023. Two planting times (late June, late September) and four levels of gibberellic acid (0, 100, 200, and 400 ppm) were considered as treatments in the form of corm priming. The evaluated traits were the number of buds, time to germination, number of flowers, time to flowering, bud-to-flower conversion ratio, dry weight of stigma, and quality traits of saffron stigma. The results showed that priming saffron corms with 100 ppm gibberellic acid in late June significantly (α=1%) increased the number of flowers, bud-to-flower conversion ratio, fresh and dry weight of stigma, crocin and safranal. However, corm priming in late September with 200 ppm gibberellic acid resulted in a significant increase (α=1%) in the number of buds, number of flowers, stigma length, fresh and dry weight of stigma, and a significant decrease (α=1%) in the time to flowering onset and germination, although in some traits they were in the same statistical group as the 400 ppm level. Overall, the results of this experiment showed that first, corm priming in late June with low levels of gibberellic acid is better, but, corm priming in late September with higher levels is beneficial. Secondly, corms priming in late June and at a level of 100 ppm of the hormone can increase the amount of crocin and safranal and yield traits, while priming corms in late September can reduce the time to flowering and time to germination And will improve flower and corm yield in the first year. https://saffron.torbath.ac.ir/article_238660.html Water resources, as one of the most critical inputs in agricultural production, have faced increasing constraints in recent years due to climate change and unsustainable exploitation. This situation underscores the need to optimize cropping patterns and enhance water productivity. The objective of this study is to examine the effects of changes in irrigation methods and water-reduction scenarios on crop yield and net profit within the cropping pattern of the Hamadan–Bahar Plain, with particular emphasis on saffron, a strategic crop for strengthening agricultural resilience. During the 2023–2024 agricultural year, crop yield simulations were conducted under three irrigation methods (surface, sprinkler, and drip irrigation) combined with deficit irrigation scenarios of 5%, 8%, and 10%. The simulated yield results were subsequently incorporated as inputs into a Positive Mathematical Programming (PMP) model to assess the impacts of yield changes on total agricultural net profit. The findings indicate that crop yields varied significantly across the three irrigation methods, and under the 10% deficit irrigation scenario, most crops experienced noticeable yield reductions. Consequently, saffron was introduced into the cropping pattern due to its low water requirement and high economic potential. A comparative assessment of irrigation methods revealed that drip irrigation consistently outperformed surface and sprinkler systems across all scenarios, effectively compensating for yield losses and mitigating reductions in farm income. Economic results further demonstrated that expanding saffron cultivation, alongside the adoption of modern irrigation technologies, not only offset the profit losses associated with water scarcity but, in some scenarios, increased net agricultural income relative to the baseline condition. Therefore, integrating saffron cultivation development with drip irrigation systems can be recommended as a sustainable and economically viable strategy for water resource management and for enhancing the resilience of agriculture in the Hamadan–Bahar Plain. https://saffron.torbath.ac.ir/article_240613.html To evaluate the allelopathic and antifungal effects of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) leaf and corm extracts on the germination and early growth of Peganum harmala and on the mycelial growth of Fusarium nygamai, three independent factorial experiments were conducted using a completely randomized design with three replications. The experiments were conducted in 2021 at the Seed Research Laboratory, Research Greenhouse, and Plant Disease Laboratory of the Faculty of Agriculture at the University of Birjand. In the first experiment (laboratory bioassay), treatments consisted of two saffron plant organs (leaf and corm) and seven extract concentrations (0, 0.0625, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1, and 2% w.v-1) applied to assess inhibitory effects on the germination parameters of wild rue seeds. The second experiment (greenhouse pot study) employed identical treatments to evaluate seedling emergence and growth characteristics. In the third experiment, the same treatment structure was used to investigate the inhibitory effects of extracts on the mycelial growth of F. nygamai. The results of the interaction between treatments under laboratory conditions showed that the lowest germination percentage, mean germination time, and allometric coefficient were obtained with the 2% concentration of corm extract. The lowest length of radicle and shoot, dry weight of shoot, and root were obtained from the 2% concentration of corm extract. In greenhouse conditions, the 2% corm extract and the 1 and 2% leaf extract treatments resulted in the lowest germination percentage, the longest mean germination time, the lowest germination rate coefficient, and the lowest allometric coefficient. Furthermore, the minimum shoot length, root length, shoot dry weight, and root fresh weight were obtained from the same treatments. The results of the antifungal test showed that the lowest colony diameter on the third and sixth days was observed with the 2% extract, which did not differ significantly from that of the 1% extract. On the ninth day, the lowest colony diameter was obtained from a concentration of 2% corm extract, which had no statistically significant difference with concentrations of 1 and 2% leaf extract. Finally, the results of these experiments showed that the effect of inhibiting germination and growth of wild rue in laboratory conditions was greater in saffron corm extract and in greenhouse conditions in leaf extract, and the antifungal effect of leaf extract was greater. Therefore, based on the results of this study and further research into the fungicidal and allotoxic effects of saffron organ extracts, it is possible to develop natural fungicides and herbicides. https://saffron.torbath.ac.ir/article_244149.html Saffron is a spice produced from the dried stigmas of the flower Crocus sativus L and is the most expensive spice in the world. Therefore, this product is frequently subject to adulteration and mislabeling. In the local Iranian market, saffron is classified into three main types—Sargol, Negin, and Pushal—based on the cutting position of the stigma, and their quality characteristics and prices vary according to the type. Consequently, the identification of saffron types is of great importance from both qualitative and economic perspectives.In the present study, the combination of Fourier Transform Mid-Infrared (FT-MIR) spectroscopy and chemometric methods was employed to classify different types of Iranian saffron. Various spectral preprocessing methods were applied to correct the spectral data, and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used as an unsupervised model, while Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) with linear and quadratic kernels was applied as a supervised classification model. The best result was achieved using SG + D2 + MSC preprocessing and the linear kernel of the LDA model, yielding a prediction accuracy of 88.88% for the classification of the three saffron types. The acceptable results obtained demonstrate the effectiveness of this method for the non-destructive identification of different types of Iranian saffron. https://saffron.torbath.ac.ir/article_240666.html Although saffron (Crocus sativus L.), as one of the most important medicinal-spice species with low water requirement and high economic value, is not tolerant to salinity, evidences show that it is not highly sensitive to salinity either; however, information about saffron response to salinity at the field scale is very limited. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of irrigation with different levels of electrical conductivity (2, 5, 8, and 11 dS m-1) and different amounts of nitrogen (0, 25, 50, and 100 kg ha-1) on saffron stigma yield and changes in soil salinity. The results showed that stigma yield decreased significantly with increasing salinity in both years, especially in the second year; so that in the second year, no plants grew in the 11 dS m-1 treatment. The reduction in yield due to the highest salinity level in the first and second years was 75.3% and 80.9%, respectively. Only in the second year did nitrogen have a significant effect on stigma yield; the highest yield was obtained at salinities of 2 and 5 dS m-1 from the 50 kg N ha-1 treatment and at salinity of 8 dS m-1 from the 25 kg N ha-1 treatment. The effect of saline irrigation on the electrical conductivity of the saturated soil extract (ECe) was observed from 50 days after planting (DAP), and over time up to 150 DAP, water salinity treatments (except 2 dS m-1) led to an increase in ECe at two depths of 0 to 30 and 30 to 60 cm. At this time, the average ECe of the two depths in irrigation water treatments with salinities of 2, 5, 8 and 11 dS m-1 was equal to 0.3, 1.8, 10.9 and 13.9 dS m-1, respectively. In the second year, the treatments maintained the differences made in the first year relatively evenly throughout the growing season. Given the good regression relationship between the EM38 and ECe readings, the apparent salinity (ECa) could be estimated using the EM38. The differences between ECa in nitrogen and salinity treatments were very pronounced, with the highest ECa being obtained from the 11 dS m-1 treatment. Overall, the results showed that semi-saline water could be used for saffron cultivation with a slight yield reduction, however, irrigation and nutrition management should be carefully observed. In low salinity, 50 kg N ha-1 and in medium salinity, 25 kg N ha-1 is suitable for improving saffron yield. By observing the appropriate leaching fraction for saline conditions and the stability of soil salinity, it is expected that soil salinity at the end of the growing season will be 1.4 times the average of irrigation water, and soil salinity at the end of the saffron growing season will be between 0.94 and 1.44 times that at the beginning of the season. https://saffron.torbath.ac.ir/article_246724.html To investigate the effects of mycorrhizal inoculation and humic acid application on the growth of daughter corms of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) under two irrigation regimes, an experiment was conducted during the 2016–2017 growing season at the Research Farm of the Faculty of Agriculture, Sarayan, University of Birjand. The experiment was arranged as a split-split plot based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. Irrigation interval (20 and 40 days) was assigned to main plots, humic acid application (0 and 5 kg ha⁻¹) to subplots, and mycorrhizal inoculation (Glomus mosseae, G. intraradices, and non-inoculated control) to sub-subplots. Irrigation regime significantly affected total leaf weight, scale weight, and the number of daughter corms in different weight classes; humic acid influenced total daughter corm number, scale weight, corm weight, and daughter corm distribution across weight classes; and mycorrhizal inoculation impacted total daughter corm weight per plant, number of flower buds per corm, scale weight, and daughter corm counts in various weight categories. The highest leaf weight and dry stigma yield (1.7 g.m2) were obtained under 20-day irrigation intervals with G. mosseae inoculation and humic acid application, whereas the lowest values occurred under 40-day intervals without inoculation or humic acid. The maximum number of daughter corms (5.61 per plant) and flower buds (14.6 per corm) were recorded under combined G. mosseae inoculation and humic acid at 20-day irrigation. Daughter corms were predominantly distributed in the <4 g weight class across treatments, with the highest number of large corms (8–12 g) observed under 20-day irrigation with humic acid and G. mossea, although the highest number of small corms was also recorded in the above treatment. Overall, humic acid application and mycorrhizal inoculation relatively enhanced leaf weight, dry stigma yield, and daughter corm weight and number under the 20-day irrigation regime. https://saffron.torbath.ac.ir/article_251335.html To evaluate the efficacy of various doses of Haloxyfop-R-methyl herbicide, both with and without adjuvants, on the yield components of saffron (Crocus sativus L.), a factorial experiment was conducted in the Sarayan region during the 2023 growing seasons. The study was implemented using a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications in a four-year-old saffron field. Treatments consisted of four herbicide doses (0, 54, 81, and 108 g a.i. ha⁻¹, representing the weedy control, 50%, 75%, and 100% of the recommended dose, respectively) and three adjuvant levels (no adjuvant, Citogate, and corn oil at 0.5% v/v). Herbicide applications were performed in February 2023, and yield characteristics, including flower number, fresh and dry flower weight, and dry stigma weight, were determined at the end of the harvest period in early December 2023. Results revealed that the highest flower number occurred in the hand-weeding treatment (a 77.76% increase compared to the weedy control), which did not differ significantly from the 100% and 75% recommended doses applied with Citogate (77.43% and 69.21% increases, respectively). The application of 75% and 100% of the recommended herbicide doses combined with Citogate resulted in fresh flower weight increases of 59.09% and 60.32%, respectively, exhibiting a performance comparable to the hand-weeding treatment (62.25%). While no significant differences were observed between adjuvant levels at the 0 and 50% herbicide doses, Citogate significantly enhanced the aforementioned traits at the 75% and 100% dose levels. Furthermore, the weedy control resulted in a 32% reduction in fresh flower weight compared to the weed-free check. The interaction between herbicide dose and adjuvant showed that the addition of corn oil increased dry stigma weight by 4.66%, 2.82%, 6.11%, and 2.98% at the 0, 50%, 75%, and 100% dose levels, respectively, relative to the no-adjuvant control. In comparison, Citogate supplementation led to more pronounced increases of 8.27%, 9.65%, 45.97%, and 43.22%, respectively. Consequently, adjuvant application significantly improved saffron dry stigma weight, with Citogate exhibiting a superior effect over corn oil. The maximum dry stigma weight was recorded in the hand-weeding treatment (94.51% higher than the weedy control), showing no statistically significant difference from the 100% and 75% recommended doses combined with Citogate (93.04% and 80.72% increases, respectively). In contrast, the weedy control led to a 35.20% reduction in dry stigma weight, significantly differing from all other treatments. Overall, the findings suggest that integrating adjuvants, particularly Cytogate, with Haloxyfop-R-methyl can effectively optimize saffron stigma yield.