Saffron Agronomy and Technology

Abstract Saffron field from the onset of dormancy to flowering phase is free of vegetation and increased soil temperature and reduced land use efficiency are the clearest problems of sole saffron cultivation. In order to study the effect of intercropping patterns of mallow (Malva sylvetris L.) as a perennial medicinal plant with saffron (Crocus sativus L.) on replacement corm growth and flower yield affected as possible cooling of corms for climate change and global warming mitigation, an experiment was conducted at Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran during three growing seasons of 2015-2016, 2016-2017 and 2017-2018. Treatments were 15, 30, 45 and 60-cm row spacings for saffron from mallow planting rows and sole saffron and mallow cultivations. Based on results in the third year, the effect of intercropping patterns with mallow was significant on yield indicators of flower and corm of saffron. In comparison between sole cultivation and intercropped saffron revealed that the highest values for flower number, dried stigma yield and yield of replacement corms were recorded for sole saffron cultivation with 81 flowers.m-2, 0.2115 g.m-2 and 26.51 g.m-2, respectively. In comparisons amongst intercropping patterns, the highest values for these criteria were related to 30-cm row spacings from mallow with 46 flowers.m-2, 0.155 g.m-2 and 13.39 g.m-2, respectively. However, corcin, picrocrocin and safranal contents were not significantly affected by intercropping patterns with mallow. Effect of intercropped saffron was significant on fresh weight of flower, dried weight of flower and branches number per plant of mallow. The maximum value for dried flower weight was observed for 60-cm row spacing with 28.89 g.m-2. The range for LER calculated with 1.01-1.77 and the maximum value was for 15-cm row spacing.

Abstract An experiment was conducted in a strip-plot layout based on a randomized complete block design with three replications in the 2016-2017 growing season at the Bakhrez county, Khorasan Razavi province, Iran in order to study quantitative performance and water use efficiency of a few saffron criteria in response to different irrigation volumes and intervals. Irrigation intervals was allocated as horizontal factor (factor A) in four levels (a1=15, a2 =30, a3 = 45, and a4 = 90 days) and irrigation water volume performed as vertical factor (factor B) in four volumes (b1 = 250, b2 = 500, b3 = 1000 and b4 = 1250 m³.ha^-1). The results showed that the highest saffron flower and corm yields were obtained in the a2b3 treatment (total water volume of 6000 m³.ha^-1). The highest reduction in corm yield is shown in the a4b1 treatment (total water volume 750 m³.ha^-1) with a decrease of 72.1% compared to a1b2 (total water volume 5500 m³.ha^-1). The lowest fresh flower yield was obtained in the a4b1 treatment (total water volume 750 m³.ha^-1) with a decrease of 76.5% compared to a1b2 (total water volume 5500 m³.ha^-1), and the lowest yield of corm yield was shown in treatment with a4b1 volume (total water volume 750 m³.ha^-1) with a decrease of 70.6% compared to the a2b3 volume (The total volume of water was 6000 m³.ha^-1). Also, the results showed that the highest decrease in corm water use efficiency was obtained in the a1b4 treatment (total water volume 13750 m³.ha^-1) decreased by 85.4 percent compared to a3b1 (total volume of water 1000 m³.ha^-1) and the greatest decrease in fresh flower water use efficiency was shown in the a1b4 treatment (total volume of water 13750 m³.ha^-1) decreased by 82.4% compared to a2b1 (total volume of water 1500 m³.ha^-1). According to the results, the use of 250 to 500 m³.ha^-1 irrigation in 30-day intervals (1500 to 3000 m³.ha^-1) is recommended for maximum water use efficiency in saffron cultivation.

Abstract This experiment was carried out as a split plot based on randomized complete block design with three replications in 2016-2017 and 2017-2018 and the data related to 2017-2018 were analysed. The irrigation time for the main plot (A) consisted of 4 levels including I1: control (traditional irrigation) on October 12, I2: irrigation at 10 days after I1, I3: I1+ one additional irrigation after the last irrigation (April 30), I4: the first irrigation time was done 10 days later than the traditional irrigation+ one additional irrigation 10 days after the last irrigation. Sub plot (B) was the foliar application of various stimulators including of G1: control, G2: acid salicylic, G3: Complete micro fertilizer, G4: nano Tio2, G5: nano Sio2. In this experiment different traits of corm and flower and stigma quality were determined. The results indicated that foliar application of complete micro fertilizer and Sio2 nanoparticles had the highest number of daughter corms. Moreover,both of them caused 25 percent increase overthe control group. Irrigation times at I4 and I1 yielded the maximum and minimum contents of dry weight of style and stigma. Foliar application of complete micro fertilizer was the best treatment in terms of dry weight of style and stigma.  The most contents of crocin among various fertilizers belonged to complete micro and Tio2 nanoparticles. The highest amount of picrocrocin belonged to complete micro fertilizer and salicylic acid. The salicylic acid foliar application was the best treatment in terms of chlorophyll content of saffron leaves. In conclusion the first irrigation on October 12 and using complete micro fertilizer are reconded.    

Abstract In order to investigate the effects of vegetation covering and shading on the economic yield of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) a split–plot experiment based on Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications was conducted at the Gonabad station for two cropping years (2018-2019, 2019- 2020). Experiments included main factor, density at four levels (90, 60, 120 and 150 corms per square meter) and sub-factors of crop residue management and shading at four levels (removal of saffron residues at the end of growing season as (control), presence of saffron residues at the end of the growing season, (control) + use of 2 (t.ha^-1) barley straw and finally (control) + use of shading). Due to the nature of sub-factors, the data for the second year of growth were measured and analyzed. The results of analysis of variance showed that density and cover management had a significant effect (p≤0.01) on the vegetative characteristics of saffron (number, length and leaf area). However, the effect of density and the interaction effect of density × covering on vegetative traits had not significant effect. Also, the results of measured traits related to yield showed that the effect of corm density, covering management and the interaction of corm density × type of covering on number, flower weight and economic stigma yield were significant (p≤0.01). The highest amount of dry stigma yield and fresh weight of flowers with values of 5.16 and 411 (kg.ha^-1), respectively, achieved from the treatment of 150 corms per square meter density and use of cereal straw covering and the lowest of these traits with values of 2.2 and 200 (kg.ha^-1) was obtained from the density of 60 corms per square meter and control. Stepwise regression analysis for variables related to saffron economic yield showed that the number of flowers per unit area alone could explain 90.59% of the variation in saffron economic performance. Considering the positive effect of covering application on adjusting soil temperature compared to the maximum daily air temperature (at least 7%) and the simultaneous positive effect of this method of cropping management with induction of flowering stage in saffron, it seems that the use of different types of covering, especially cereal straw, is recommended to stabilize and improve saffron yield due to its low cost and easier access to covering saffron fields.

Abstract The effect of sound waves on saffron corms in the controlled environment and aeroponic cultivation on the amount of flowering and production of saffron stigma are investigated in this study. Sound waves with a sound pressure level of 77 decibel for 15 minutes a day were induced into two groups of corms. In the first group, the effects of sound waves with frequencies of 0.5, 1 and 2 kHz and also a type of classical music sound on saffron corms in different periods of flowering induction, flowering and the whole period (flowering formation) were studied. In the second group, this test was performed on bulbs only in the flowering period with single frequencies of 4, 8, 12 and 16 kHz. Also, the effect of sound application time in 15, 30 and 60 minutes per day at 16 kHz frequency on the corms was investigated. Statistical results showed that in the first group, induction of single frequency sound led to production of flowers and also saffron stigma amounts less than or equal to that of the control group. However, these differences were not significant except for the treatment on flowering period at 500 Hz (p < 0.05). The application of musical sound in different stages of corm growth reduced its flowering efficiency compared to the control group. Among the treatments of the second group, the mean values of number of flowers at 4 and 8 kHz frequencies were higher than that of the control group. In the treatment with a frequency of 4 kHz, which produced the highest amount of flowers and stigmas, the flowering efficiency of saffron corms increased more than 4.0%. Also, increasing the duration of sound application from 15 min to 30 and 60 min per day caused a significant increase in the number of flowers and the flowering efficiencies had increased by 6.0 and 10.4% compared to that of the control group during 30 and 60 min, respectively.

Abstract This study aimed to determine the chemical composition, silage characteristics, digestibility, and in vitro gas production parameters of saffron waste (including petals and stamen) before and after ensiling. Experimental treatments (4 replicates) contained: 1) Saffron wastes before ensiling: SWBE; 2) Saffron wastes after ensiling: SWAE; 3) 96.88% Saffron wastes after ensiling+3.12% wheat bran: 96.88%SWAE+3.12%WB (fresh weight); 4) 93.75% Saffron wastes after ensiling+6.25% wheat bran: 93.75%SWAE+6.25%WB (fresh weight); 5) 87.5% Saffron wastes after ensiling+12.5% wheat bran: 87.5%SWAE+12.5%WB (fresh weight); 6) 75% Saffron wastes after ensiling+25% wheat bran: 75%SWAE+25%WB (fresh weight); 7) 50% Saffron wastes after ensiling+50% wheat bran: 50%SWAE+50%WB (fresh weight). Statistical analysis of the data was performed in a completely randomized design. Treatment 2 did not have good quality and odor due to high moldy and adhesion characteristics, but the addition of wheat bran, especially at higher levels (treatment 4, 5, 6) led to an increase in the silage quality. Chemical composition of the experimental treatments (dry matter 10.40-54.37% of fresh weight, neutral detergent fiber 12.83-27.35%, acid detergent fiber 7.23.11.45%, crude protein 14.88-15.67%, ether extract 5.43-5.77% and ash was 5.89-11.12% of dry weight) was different. Among the experimental treatments, the highest neutral and acid detergent fibers were observed (27.35% and 11.45%, respectively) in treatment 7. The lowest pH as well as the highest concentrations of lactic and acetic acids, gas production at 12 and 24 h incubation, and constant rate of gas production were observed in treatment 7. True dry matter digestibility differed from 76.30% for treatment 2 to 79.95% for treatment 1. Overall, saffron waste had good nutritional value before being ensilaged, and ensiling without additives reduced its quality. However, it was possible to ensilage saffron wastes with wheat bran as a moisture-absorbing material without adverse effects on some nutritional parameters. In terms of appearance quality, odor, non-molding, and fermentation characteristics of the silo environment, the best conditions were observed in treatment 7.

Abstract The purpose of this study was to use entrepreneurial thinking to identify and prioritize the development strategies of entrepreneurship and commercialization of saffron in rural areas of South Khorasan province in order to rotate traditional agricultural activities in southern Khorasan Province toward innovative activities. In this paper, the integrated approach of the dynamics analysis process SWOT-AHP. First, SWOT analysis has identified and categorized the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of saffron activities in rural areas of South Khorasan Province. Since the issue of decision making of the present research is of a multi-index type and its structure has a hierarchical component of decision-making elements, including goal, criteria and sub-criteria, the hierarchical analysis process (AHP) to calculate the weight and importance of each of the criteria and The following criteria have been used through SWOT analysis. In order to collect the research data, the matrix of paired comparison of each of the components and groups was completed using 15 experts and agricultural industry activists, whose internal strengths with the relative weight of 372/0 were in the first rank and also external opportunities with a relative weight of 344/0 And external threats with a relative weight of 148 and, finally, internal weaknesses with a relative weight of 136/0 were ranked next. The results show that the most important strategy for the development of entrepreneurship and commercialization of saffron in rural areas of South Khorasan province is SO strategy with a utility index of 26.2. The most suitable strategies of this kind are the creation of a suitable platform for private sector investment in the development and commercialization of agricultural products, the use of specialized and experienced personnel to establish community-based associations and promote and educate in the field of commercialization, with emphasis on practical aspects through meetings. And various meetings with the people of the region, marketing and advertising to introduce strategic products in South Khorasan province, the strengthening and support of purchasing cooperatives in the cultivation areas were selected for direct purchase from farmers as the most important strategies.

Abstract In order to investigate the relationship between quantitative traits and ISSR markers, an experiments were carried out under farm and laboratory conditions at Zanjan University. In this experiment, 20 primers of ISSR marker were used and the agronomic traits (including flower number, fresh weight of Stigma, fresh weight of flower, dry weight of Stigma, dry weight of flower, stigma length, saffron yield, corm number, feresh and dry weight of corm, number of leaf, leaf length, leaf width, leaf area, leaf dry weight, biomass, harvest index), physiological traits (transpiration rate, stomatal conductance, photosynthesis) and secondary metabolites (picocrocin, Safranal and Crocin) were measured during the growing season. Three primers of total did not amplified. 17 ISSR primers amplified 133 loci among 20 saffron ecotypes, with an average of 7.82 loci per primer. The highest number of alleles were for the I-8 primer (15 alleles).

Abstract Theories of international trade have emphasized specialization of countries and have considered this as a prerequisite to gain profit from trade. Iran has experienced a variety of forms of export of saffron as one of its important and valuable products to destination markets, which has made specialization in these markets doubtful. Therefore, this research study seeks to find out whether export of Iranian saffron in the world market and destination markets is moving towards specialization or not? In order to achieve this objective, the revealed comparative advantage index and the specialization pattern were investigated in the period of 2001-2018. The research findings have three main results. First, Iran's saffron exports have been associated with a de-specialization in the world market, and Spain, as Iran's most important export competitor, is on the paths to export specialization. Second, Iran has been specialized in saffron exports for the period 2001-2009 and has experienced a de-specialization in the 2010-2018 period. Third, Iran has been on the path of increasing specialization in only 15 percent of the destination markets (China, India, Hong Kong and Germany), and has a de-specialization in other markets. Because specialization in the destination market goes beyond identifying the demographic components of that market, it is suggested that long-term contracts be concluded with customers to adopt and implement production and marketing policies by further adapting the production and export of Iranian saffron to the culture of consumer markets.