Saffron Agronomy and Technology

Abstract Aging is a progressive and gradual process accompanied by a decrease and disruption in the function of cells, tissues, and organs in living organisms, affecting the quality of life and increasing the risk of various diseases. An imbalance between the production and removal of reactive oxygen species by the antioxidant defense systems in the body leads to increased oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, and inhibition of autophagy, as well as an increase in advanced glycation end products, induced aging. Today, the elderly population is rising and anti-aging strategies have become an important issue worldwide. Saffron is obtained from the dried stigmas of the flowers of the Crocus sativus plant of the Iridaceae family, which has been used as a spice for centuries due to its color, flavor, and aroma. Saffron and its active compounds (crocin, crocetin, and safranal) have received attention for their anti-aging properties. This review article aims to provide information about the anti-aging effect of saffron and its active compounds by explaining the possible mechanisms of action. In this review article, information was collected from PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar using the keywords saffron, crocin, crocetin, safranal, Crocus sativus L, aging and age-related from the beginning to 2024.

Saffron and its active ingredients probably reduce oxidative damage and inhibit apoptosis, and cell death due to their strong antioxidant effect by scavenging reactive oxygen species and inhibiting oxidative stress. They also have health-promoting properties with strong anti-inflammatory effects. In several studies, the protective effects of saffron and its active compounds in delaying the aging process in various tissues have been evaluated.

Overall, the results of these studies show that saffron and its active compounds are effective in delaying the aging process due to their high antioxidant capacity and scavenging of free radicals by improving the status of the antioxidant defense system and inhibiting oxidative stress in the cells, followed by inhibiting apoptosis and inflammation.

Abstract Accurate estimation of saffron water demand is essential for sustainable water resource management in saffron-growing regions. This study examines the optimization of the Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model for predicting saffron water demand using the hybrid Coati Optimization Algorithm (COA). The performance of the ANN-COA model was compared with ANN, ANN-GA, ANN-PSO, ANN-MFO, Quadratic Regression (QR), Tree Regression (TR), and Pattern Regression models. Input data included temperature (minimum, maximum, average), wind speed, relative humidity, net radiation, and day of the year. The results showed that under conditions using all climatic parameters, the ANN-COA model achieved an R² of 0.995 and a Mean Squared Error (MSE) of 0.0001 for the Mashhad station, and an R² of 0.973 and MSE of 0.0005 for the Birjand station, indicating acceptable accuracy in predicting saffron water demand. Additionally, under conditions with limited climatic parameters, the ANN-COA model, using maximum temperature, wind speed, and day of the year, exhibited the best performance in predicting saffron water demand. Based on the findings of this research, hybrid neural network models show superior accuracy in estimating saffron water demand with minimal climatic parameters compared to other data mining models.

Abstract Evaluating the response of various saffron ecotypes regarding physiological and biochemical traits, as well as stigma-related characteristics, is crucial for cultivation in specific regions. Therefore, a study was conducted to assess the physiological, biochemical, and stigma-related traits of five saffron ecotypes (Torqroud: EC1, Natanz: EC2, Kashan: EC3, Qaenat: EC4, and Badroud: EC5) in pots under open field conditions at the Islamic Azad University Research Farm in Ardestan in 2022, following a completely randomized design with three replications. Results indicated significant differences in yield, quality, physiological, and biochemical traits among the examined ecotypes. The EC2 ecotype was significantly superior in yield traits such as stigma diameter (2.09 mm), stigma length (2.43 cm), number of flowers (95.40 per m2), fresh flower yield (47.27 g m-2), and dry stigma yield (0.828 g m-2). The levels of safranal, picrocrocin, and crocin in the EC2, EC3, and EC4 ecotypes were significantly higher compared to other ecotypes, with the highest values of these traits observed in EC2 (53.02, 175.1, and 202.6 E_(1 cm)^(1%), respectively). The content of photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a, b, and total) was highest in the EC2 ecotype compared to the others. In terms of antioxidant enzyme activity, EC1 and EC4 ecotypes exhibited the highest activity. Correlation results indicated a positive relationship between yield and quality traits. Overall, this study clearly demonstrates that environmental conditions can significantly impact the quality and yield of saffron, aiding in the selection of the best ecotypes for cultivation in different regions. The EC2 ecotype is recommended for cultivation in the studied area after field trials.

Abstract Saffron is one of the most popular and well-known spice and medicinal plant species in the world. Limited information is available regarding the nutritional properties and allocation of phytochemicals in this plant. The aim of this study is to evaluate the impact of different concentrations of forchlorfenuron and potassium nitrate on the accumulation of carbohydrates and starch metabolism in saffron stigmas and corms. This experiment was carried out in a factorial design in a randomized complete block design at the research farm of Zanjan University. The first stage of foliar application was conducted in early February and the second stage in early March. In this study, traits such as soluble carbohydrates and starch content in stigmas and corms, the activity of the enzyme beta-amylase in stigmas and ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGP) enzyme in corms, stomatal conductance and resistance, photosynthetic rate, sub-stomatal CO₂ concentration, chlorophyll a, b and total chlorophyll, anthocyanins, and flavonoids were measured. Additionally, the percentage of nutritional elements in stigmas and corms including nitrogen and potassium was determined. Based on the results, the interactive effect of forchlorfenuron at 5 mg/L with potassium nitrate at 500 mg/L resulted in increased nitrogen and potassium in the corms, stomatal conductance, photosynthetic rate, sub-stomatal CO₂ concentration, chlorophyll a, total chlorophyll, flavonoids, and soluble carbohydrates in the stigmas. Transpiration rate and anthocyanin levels were not influenced by the treatments. Nearly all treatments, with the highest response observed with forchlorfenuron at 5 mg/L in combination with potassium nitrate at 1000 mg/L, led to an increase in starch content in the corms. The activity of the enzyme ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase in corms continuously increased with higher levels of CPPU and KNO₃, especially reaching 49.96 µmol/min/g protein with a treatment of 5 mg CPPU and 500 mg KNO₃. This indicates an increase in starch storage in saffron stigmas under these treatments. This study reveals significant insights into the role of CPPU and potassium nitrate on growth, nutrient absorption, carbohydrate metabolism, and allocation of phytochemicals in saffron. Treatment with 5 mg/L CPPU and 500 mg/kg KNO₃ significantly improved all physiological parameters examined. This treatment resulted in increased carbohydrate storage, improved nitrogen and potassium uptake in stigmas and corms, enhanced activity of the enzyme ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase in corms, and considerable increases in the qualitative characteristics of saffron such as safranal, crocin, and picrocrocin. The results obtained can contribute to improving the weight and quality of saffron corms to increase flower production in field conditions.

Abstract Apocarotenoid compounds cause various communication functions in plants. Apocarotenoids are the result of enzymatic cleavage of carotenoids catalyzed by carotenoid dioxygenases (CCD). The CCD4 family is the largest family of plant CCDs. In this research, genomic DNA was extracted from fresh leaves of wild saffron Crocus haussknechtii BOISS and used as a template for amplification of CCD4a and CCD4b genes in PCR reaction. PCR products were sequenced after purification. Then, the gene sequence was compared with the saffron gene available in the gene bank and a phylogenetic tree related to their sequence was drawn. In addition, the amino acids of proteins were compared and the spatial structure of the protein of these two genes was drawn. The results showed that the number of nucleotides in CCD4a gene is equal to 2402 and in CCD4b gene is 2373 kb. The dendrogram related to the sequence of CCD4a gene showed that the species were divided into 5 separate groups based on the similarity in the sequence of nucleic acids, and the highest similarity was related to the CCD4a gene of Iranian agricultural saffron with a rate of 99.82. In addition, the dendrogram diagram for the CCD4b gene was divided into three groups, with the lowest distance between this gene and the genes of saffron species. By defining the exon regions, the protein sequence of CCD4a and CCD4b genes was determined, and their number of amino acids was equal to 577 and 567, respectively. The findings of this research can provide valuable information regarding the behavior and reaction of CCD4a and CCD4b enzymes in the synthesis of C. haussknechtii apocarotenoids and can be used in gene transfer programs from wild saffron to saffron be a useful crop.

Abstract Saffron is considered one of the most valuable commercial products in the world. Considering the commercial value of saffron, the domestic and foreign trade in Iran has always had a significant boom and expansion. Therefore, it is very important to evaluate the welfare benefits of the domestic trade, especially in competitive conditions. Therefore, in the present study, the welfare benefits of regional saffron trade in Iran were evaluated. For this purpose, with mathematical modeling, the components of Iran's saffron market were evaluated in competitive conditions compared to the existing conditions in the base year of 2022. Based on this, at first, the parameters of saffron supply and demand functions were estimated by the provinces of the country using the maximum entropy method. Next, the components of the saffron market among different provinces were simulated in the form of a spatial equilibrium. The results showed that in competitive conditions, the average price changes and the amount of supply and demand of saffron in the country will not change significantly. Therefore, the current conditions of the saffron market are very close to perfect competition market. Nevertheless, in competitive conditions, the price of each product unit in Razavi Khorasan, South Khorasan, and North Khorasan provinces increases relatively more than in other provinces. The increase in the price of saffron in these conditions in the three provinces of Khorasan leads to a decrease of about 4 to 6 percent in the demand for this product. The decrease in demand in competitive conditions also happens in several other provinces. Finally, the results of this research showed that in the competitive conditions of saffron trade, the increase in social welfare is mainly aimed at the suppliers of Razavi Khorasan, South Khorasan, and North Khorasan provinces. At the same time, the average social benefits of the whole society, looking at the sum of welfare surpluses of suppliers and demanders, do not change significantly compared to the basic conditions. On this basis, based on the obtained results, the application of various support policies was discussed to increase the welfare benefits of the beneficiaries of the saffron market.